‘It seems to me that the natural world is the greatest
source of excitement; the greatest source of visual beauty, the greatest source
of intellectual interest. It is the greatest source of so much in life that
makes life worth living.’
Sir David Attenborough
(broadcaster, writer, naturalist)
This
year, we were lucky enough to spend a deeply relaxing and refreshing holiday in
beautiful Masuria, Poland, a remote region full of lakes, rivers and forests. And
anybody who knows us can testify that we gain a lot of pleasure from spending
time with our rescue dogs, come rain or sunshine. I think that our experience
is similar to that of most people that we know: Having contact with nature and animals
greatly contributes to a good quality of life. But I have been wondering if
this is just because some people simply like spending a lot of time with nature
and animals, but others don’t. Or does everybody benefit from nature and
animals? And if yes, how does it work?
The many ways that nature contributes to our
well-being
There
is indeed a mounting body of evidence that contact with nature has general
beneficial effects on the mental well-being of humans.1-6 For
example, it has been shown that living near green space increases our physical
health and longevity, that exposure to nature improves our mood, and that it reduces
stress and mental fatigue.1,2 It has also been reported that
hospital patients who have a view on green space and nature have shorter hospital
stays than people with built-up views.3
However,
while the positive effect of nature appears to have been sufficiently
demonstrated, the mechanisms through which this works are less clear.2
It has been suggested that in contrast to a built-up (urban) environment,
nature automatically captures our attention and eliciting feelings of pleasure.
Additionally, it allows us the feeling of escape and freedom from the demands
of daily life.4 Contact with nature can also give us an increased
sense of connectedness (to nature, to other people or to life as a whole).5
And it has been shown that living near a forest structurally alters the brain
in certain regions, which may improve the ability to cope with stress.6
One
big factor appears to be the visual
appreciation of nature (appreciation of beauty or the experiencing awe).1,2
We just seem to love watching sunsets, seeing a beautiful landscape or plants,
or observing wild animals. It has been suggested that the visual attraction of
nature is to a large degree due to curved shapes, colours (particularly the various
shades of blue and grey) and commonly occurring fractal patterns, which our
eyes appear to be drawn to.2
But
although the visual impact of nature has been most intensively examined, there
is evidence that the positive influences of natural surroundings are so strong
because they are multi-sensorial.
Impressions through sound, smell, taste and touch give depth to our experience.
Here are some examples:2
- Sound: We very much appreciate the reduction of noise levels in nature (when compared to an urban environment). And the quality of sound also makes a difference. For example, we tend to prefer the sound of wind, water and animals over that of traffic or even recreational noise. It has also been shown that birdsong, forest and other nature sounds can reduce stress and anxiety. This automatically calming effect of certain naturally occurring sounds is thought to be shaped by evolution.
- Smells: Smells have also been reported to have a huge effect on our mood, behavior and thoughts. Certain smells such as flowers, cut grass and damp earth are also experienced as pleasurable by most of us. The odor of summer air (which is due to something called leaf alcohol, produced by many plants), bees wax and fragrant flower gardens have been shown to elevate our mood. Experiments with smells such as peppermint and lemon fragrance have demonstrated a measurable positive effect on cognitive (thinking) tasks. So pleasant smells are thought to play an important role in the positive nature experience. Similar to sounds, it has been suggested that the pleasurable effect of some smells is due to our evolutionary roots.
- Taste: This is of course closely associated to smell. We are mostly tasting nature through our food, which comes from natural sources. Experiencing flavors of unprocessed foods and growing our own food in the garden are only two examples how nature can enrich our lives in this respect. There will be a special post on food next week and we will discuss this point in more detail then.
- Touch: Finally, there is touch. Our tactile sense is generally often undervalued, although it is the first sense we develop. Touch not only has a crucial role in interpersonal and human-animal relationships (see below) but can also increase our appreciation of nature, e.g. by feeling the grass under our feet when walking barefoot, touching trees, feeling the ripple of water around us when swimming and sensing wind on our skin.
It
has been shown that we can improve our level of well-being by learning to
appreciate nature more consciously, regardless of whether we feel intrinsically
connected to nature or not.5 Further surprising beneficial effects
of nature, which we cannot directly detect with our senses, have been
discovered:2
- For example, there are phytoncides (natural antimicrobial agents originating from plants), which we inhale when spending time outdoors. These phytoncides not only have antimicrobial properties, but it is thought that some of them may also stimulate the immune system, prolong sleep and decrease anxiety.
- Negative air ions are charged air particles which occur when electrons are detached from gas molecules, for example during thunder, in waterfalls or under influence of UV light. Air ions are found in significantly higher concentration in rural outdoor air than in urban areas and indoors. Although the benefits of negative air ions are still debated, it has been suggested that they may improve the comfort and decrease headaches in office workers, and may be effective in treatment of seasonal affective disorder, depression and anxiety.
- A relatively recent discovery is that the microbes, which are normally found in our intestines, have a significant effect on our central nervous system, and that they may influence our mood and emotions. Some of these microbes originate from the environment, including soil bacteria. It has been suggested that repeated exposure to soil bacteria leads to a higher tolerance to stress. Contact with nature may also lead to a greater diversity of gut microorganisms, which in turn has been associated with a lower incidence of inflammatory diseases.
Aerobic Exercise in Nature
We all know that exercise is good for us, but is there a difference
between exercising indoors, outdoors in a built-up environment or outdoors in
nature? It certainly seems this way: All types of physical exercise are related
to a better general health, but emotional well-being is more consistent
associated with physical activity in nature.7 Additionally, there is
evidence that we experience exercise in nature as easier and more pleasurable,
which can help us to stay more motivated when taking up an exercise regime.8
Aerobic exercise (= sustained exercise activity that elevates our heart
rate and utilises oxygen) is particularly beneficial and includes activities
such as walking, running, cycling, rowing/canoeing/kayaking, and swimming. Even
gardening may be regarded as aerobic exercise. Just because positive effect of aerobic
exercise on our brains cannot be emphasised enough, here is another quick
summary of its benefits:9,10
- Aerobic exercise releases endogenous morphine (=endorphins), which can reduce pain and produce a sense of well-being, which may last for many hours or even days.
- Exercise also stimulates re-structuring and cell growth in the human brain (neuroplasticity- the ability of the brain to rewire). This effect is particularly marked in the cortex and hippocampus, which are crucial for learning, memory formation and retention of factual knowledge.
- Exercise may also increase the function of the left frontal cortex, which is important for emotion regulation and other executive functions of the brain.
- From a previous post, you may remember a brain structure called the amygdala. The amygdala is involved in emotional memories; it has a key role when experiencing anxiety and fear, and it triggers the stress response (fight-or-flight response) of the body. Under certain circumstances, the amygdala can become hyperactive and highly vigilant, making us more vulnerable to stress and negative emotions. The good news is, that aerobic exercise has a calming effect on the amygdala. This works through alterations of levels of certain neurotransmitters (norepinephrine and serotonin) and an effect on serotonin receptors in the brain. This makes the amygdala less likely to trigger an anxiety response, making us feel calmer and less stressed. The positive effect of exercise on the amygdala can be stronger than that of some anxiolytic (anti-anxiety) drugs. The effect generally occurs within 20 minutes (faster than with most medications) and can last up to 4-6 hours. Additionally, aerobic exercise generally down-regulates the sympathetic nervous system activity (which is also involved in the flight-or-fight response), decreasing blood pressure and heart rate.
- Additional indirect positive effects of exercise on the brain are that it reduces muscle tension for at least 1 ½ hours after the work-out, and that it lowers adrenalin, cortisol and glucose levels (which are released by the stress response). This results in further reduction of amygdala activity.
- Furthermore, aerobic exercise increases our metabolic rate and energy levels, so that we feel more energetic.
The positive effects of animals
The
discussion mainly applies to dogs, cats, rabbits but also horses, donkeys and
other animals which are commonly found in our homes and paddocks, rather than
observing or hearing wild animals, which has been discussed above.
So
what is the evidence, that animals improve our well-being? Results of different
studies have been somewhat conflicting. After all, not all interactions with
animals are positive, and there are also some risks involved due possible
transmission of infectious diseases, allergies and animal bites, kicks and
scratches. In my opinion and experience, the motivation for pet ownership also
varies greatly: Using dogs as an example, you may keep them because you
genuinely like them, but dogs can also be kept for security reasons, as a
status symbol or you may be a more ‘accidental’ dog owner or just happen to
live with a partner who has a dog but not really enjoy their company.
However, there is certainly evidence that animals
can benefit our well-being:2,3,11-13
- Touching animals has been shown to have beneficial cardiovascular effects, reducing heart rate and blood pressure. It also lowers stress, feelings of anxiety and pain. This effect appears to be present regardless of whether or not we are familiar with that specific animal or not. This positive influence appears to be mainly due to the release of the hormone oxytocin. Interestingly, the animals who are being stroked also show an increase in oxytocin levels and a reduced cardiovascular reactivity in stressful situations.
- Playing with animals or watching videos of animals can evoke positive emotions.
- Of course, animals like dogs and horses can also motivate us to exercise outdoors, with all the benefits discussed under the exercise section. There is of course also an overlap between these benefits and those of oxytocin.
- In children, there is evidence that pet ownership is beneficial for emotional, intellectual and social development.
- Companion animals, particularly dogs, may also promote social relationships between people by enabling social interactions, new friendships and encouraging prosocial behavior.
Conclusions
I
hope that today’s post has demonstrated Sir David Attenborough’s point that
nature is truly one of the greatest sources of what makes life worth living.
Having just returned from a wet and windy dog walk, I certainly agree that the
combination of nature, exercise and animals is a great way to spend your time,
even when conditions are muddy!
Preview: Continuing on the theme of tasting nature,
next week’s post is going to be about the different connections between food
and well-being.
References and further reading:
1. The New
Economics Foundation (2008). Five ways to well-being: the evidence. Available
on request through www.foresight.gov.uk
2. Franco
LS, Shanahan DF, Fuller RA. A review of the benefits of nature experiences:
More than meets the eye. International Journal of Environmental Research and
Public Health. 2017;14:864.
3. Fredrickson
B. Positivity: Groundbreaking Research to Release Your Inner Optimist and
Thrive. Oneworld Publications; Oxford, England. 2010.
4.
Pearson DG, Craig T. The great outdoors? Exploring the mental health benefits
of natural environments. Frontiers in Psychology. 2014;5:1178.
5.
Passmore HA, Holder M. Noticing nature: Individual and social benefits of a
two-week intervention. The Journal of Positive Psychology. 2017;12(6): 537-546.
6. Kühn S, Düzel S, Eibich P, Krekel C, Wüstemann H, Kolbe J, et al. In search of features that
constitute an “enriched environment” in humans: Associations between
geographical properties and brain structure. Scientific Reports.
2017;7:11920.
7.
Pasanen TP, Tyrväinen L, Korpela KM. Relationship between perceived health and
physical activity indoors, outdoors in built environment and outdoors in
nature. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-being. 2014;6(3):324-346.
8.
Gladwell VF, Brown DK, Wood C, Sandercock GR, Barton JL. The great outdoors:
how a green exercise environment can benefit all. Extreme Physiology &
Medicine. 2013;2:3.
9. Siegel
D. Mindsight: Transform Your Brain with the New Science of Kindness. Oneworld
Publications; Oxford, UK. 2011.
10. Pittman CM, Karle EM. Rewire
Your Anxious Brain: How to use the neuroscience of fear to end anxiety, panic
& worry. New Harbinger Publications; Oakland. 2015.
11.
Kabat-Zinn J: Full Catastrophe Living: How To Cope With Stress, Pain and
Illness Using Mindfulness Meditation. Piatkus. 2013.
12.
Borgi M, Cirulli F. Pet Face: Mechanisms underlying human-animal relationships.
Frontiers in Psychology. 2016;7:298.
13.
Colarelli SM, McDonald AM, Christensen MS, Honts C. A companion group increases
prosocial behaviour in work groups. Anthrozoös. 2017;30:4.
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